Human growth

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• Ask: Are your conceptions of each of these broad age ranges the same as, similar to, or different than the authors. For example, if you are 19, do you still consider yourself an adolescent? How might your personal conceptions influence your interpretation of

  Physical Growth:
  
  The Rapid Advances of Infancy

  Infants grow at a rapid pace over the first two years of their lives (see Figure 4-1)

  • 5 months: average birthweight doubles to around 15 pounds
    
  • 1 year: weight triples to about 22 pounds
    
  • End of 2nd year: average child weighs around four times as much as he or she did at birth

  Physical Growth:
  
  The Rapid Advances of Infancy

  Not all parts of an infant’s body grow at the same rate

  • Birth: head accounts for one-quarter of the newborn’s entire body size
    
  • During 1st and 2nd year: rest of the body begins to catch up

  Physical Growth:
  
  The Rapid Advances of Infancy

  Can you give an example of each principle?

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  • Define:
  • Cephalocaudal principle states that growth follows a direction and pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds to the rest of the body.
  • Proximodistal principle states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward. See Table 4.1.
  • Principle of hierarchical integration states that simple skills typically develop separately and independently. Later these simple skills are integrated into more complex ones.
  • Principle of the independence of systems, which suggests that different body systems grow at different rates.
  • Birth: around 7 pounds; 20 inches
  • 5 months: doubled birth weight
  • 12 months: tripled birth weight; 30 inches
  • 2nd year: slows; 4x birth weight; 36 inches

  Nervous System and Brain:
  
  The Foundations of Development

  • Neurons are the basic cells of the nervous system
    
  • Nervous system comprises the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body
    

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  How great brains grow!

  Birth

  • 100-200 billion neurons
  • Relatively few neurons-neuron connections
    

  During first two years

  • Billions of new connections established and become more complex

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  • Birth: Neurons multiply at an amazing rate prior to birth. At some points in prenatal development, cell division creates some 250,000 additional neurons every minute.
  • By year 2: The intricacy of neural connection

    Sections in Module 5.2

    Intellectual and Language Development

    Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood

    Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths

    5-1

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    1

    Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

    5.7: Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

    5.8: Summarize the development of language during middle childhood, and explain the cognitive advantages bilingualism offers.

    5.9: Describe the five stages of reading, and compare teaching approaches.

    5-2

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    2

    Learning Objectives (2 of 2)

    5.10: Summarize the various trends in U.S. education.

    5.11: Compare and contrast the different methods of assessing intelligence.

    5.12: Summarize the approaches to educating children with intellectual disabilities and children who are intellectually gifted in middle childhood.

    5-3

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    3

    Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (1 of 4)

    LO 5.7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches to cognitive development in middle childhood.

    Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development

    The Rise of Concrete Operational Thought

    Child enters concrete operational stage in ages 7 to 12

    Involves applying logical operations to concrete problems

    Children can solve conservation problems

    They can take multiple aspects of a situation into account (decentering)

    They attain reversibility

    They can understand relationship between time and speed

    They are tied to concrete, physical reality

    5-4

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    4

    Figure 5-4: Conservation Training

    Rural Australian Aborigine children trail their urban counterparts in the development of their understanding of conservation; with training, they later catch up. Without training, around half of 14-year-old Aborigines do not have an understanding of conservation. What can be concluded from the fact that training influences the understanding of conservation? SOURCE: Based on Dasen et al., 1979.

    5-5

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    Source: Based on Dasen et al., 1979.

    5

    Perspectives on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (2 of 4)

    LO 5.7 Identify and summarize the major theoretical approaches

    Sections in Module 6.2

    Cognitive Development

    School Performance

    6-1

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    1

    Learning Objectives

    6.6: Analyze Piaget’s account of adolescent cognitive development.

    6.7: Explain the information processing view of adolescent cognitive development.

    6.8: Describe major factors that affect adolescent school performance.

    6.9: Explain the nature and consequences of use of media by adolescents.

    6-2

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    2

    Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development: Using Formal Operations (1 of 3)

    LO 6.6 Analyze Piaget’s account of adolescent cognitive development.

    Using Formal Operations to Solve Problems

    Formal operational stage: When people develop the ability to think abstractly

    Full capabilities of using principles of logic unfold from ages 12 to 15

    Adolescents use propositional thought (using abstract thought in the absence of concrete examples)

    25 to 60 percent of college students never developed formal operations

    Cultural values also influence achievement of formal operational thought

    6-3

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    3

    Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development: Using Formal Operations (2 of 3)

    LO 6.6 Analyze Piaget’s account of adolescent cognitive development.

    The Consequences of Adolescents’ Use of Formal Operations

    Ability to think abstractly changes behavior

    Adolescents become more argumentative

    Adolescents become more interesting, but challenging

    6-4

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    4

    Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development: Using Formal Operations (3 of 3)

    LO 6.6 Analyze Piaget’s account of adolescent cognitive development.

    Evaluating Piaget’s Approach

    Research shows individual differences in cognitive abilities is not universal

    Cognitive development is continuous, not step-like

    Piaget underestimated skills of infants and young children

    More sophisticated forms of thinking do not develop until early adulthood (postformal thinking)

    6-5

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    5

    Information-Processing Perspectives:
    Gradual Transformations in Abilities (1 of 3)

    LO 6.7 Explain the information processing view of adolescent cognitive development.

    Information processing approac

    Who Am I?

    During middle childhood, children begin to view themselves:

    • Less in terms of external physical attributes
      
    • More in terms of psychological traits

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    Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood

    Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence

    • Industry = feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of competence
      
    • Inferiority = feelings of failure and inadequacy

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    • Lasting from roughly age 6 to age 12, the industry-versus-inferiority stage is characterized by a focus on efforts to meet the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world.

    Erik Erikson’s middle childhood

    • Encompasses the INDUSTRY-VERSUS­INFERIORITY STAGE
    • Period from ages 6 to 12 years of age
    • Characterized by a focus on efforts to attain competence in meeting the challenges related to:
    • Parents
    • Peers
    • School
    • Other complexities of the modern world

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    Understanding One’s Self: A New Response to “Who Am I?”

    How do school-agers change?

    • Children realize they are good at some things and not so good at others
    • Self-concept and self-esteem continue to develop
      
    • Children’s self-concepts become divided into personal and academic spheres

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    Looking Inward: The Development of Self

    As children get older, their views of self become more differentiated, comprising several personal and academic spheres.
    

    What cognitive changes make this possible?

    (Source: Based on Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976.)

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    Social Comparison

    Children use social comparison to themselves to abilities, expertise, and opinions of others

    Festinger (1959)

    • When objective measures are absent children rely on social reality
    • How others act, think, feel, and view the world

    • Festinger is known for the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance which suggests a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions, and if conflict exists between attitude and behavior, attitude will likely change first.

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    Sometimes…

    

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